Sudden Unexpected Death In Epilepsy (SUDEP) – an update

• Authors: Jerzy Majkowski
• Languages of publication: EN

Abstracts

EN

Introduction. SUDEP is not so rare event, unexplained, underused and underestimated. Its awareness has recently contributed to a number of initiatives for global action and clinical and experimental research.Aim. To undertake a literature review so as to update various aspects of SUDEP: pathophysiological mechanisms, potential markers for autonomic dysfunctions and risk factors, AEDs effects, non-AED management options, forensic/autopsy, patient-physician communications in patients with SUDEP risk.Method. A literature review, up to Nov. 2012, was conducted using PubMed-Medline for SUDEP, no indexed citation and relevant papers.Review. Interactions between the central and peripheral origin of cardiac and respiratory dysfunctions, triggered by epileptiform discharges in the cortical representation of the autonomic functions, may lead to SUDEP during simple partial autonomic seizures - even without other components of a seizure. A number of potential biomarkers of autonomic dysfunctions and risk of SUDEP are identified and proposed to use in its prevention: heart rate variability, long and short QT, arrhythmias, asystole, oxygen desaturation, apneas, hypoxia, postictal EEG suppression, circadian seizure pattern.Conclusions. Risk factors for SUDEP, AEDs effects, non-AED management of preventive options and forensic autopsy in diagnosis of SUDEP are discussed. Periictal long term video EEG, ECG and oxygen saturation monitoring may contribute to better understanding of SUDEP mechanisms and eventually to its prevention. SUDEP occurs as fatal coexistence of several predisposing risk factors. Diagnosis of SUDEP is underestimated and underused. In patient with high risk factors for SUDEP, in particular, with AED noncompliance, prognosis of epilepsy should be discussed with patient.

Keywords

EN

SUDEP; animal seizure models and autonomic dysfunctions; potential biomarkers of SUDEP risk; risk factors of SUDEP; AEDs; autopsy

• Publisher: De Gruyter Open
• Journal: Journal of Epileptology
• Year: 2013
• Volume: 21
• Issue: 1
• Pages: 37-54

Dates

published

1 - 6 - 2013

online

1 - 3 - 2015

accepted

19 - 2 - 2013

received

4 - 1 - 2013

Contributors

author

Jerzy Majkowski

• Epilepsy Diagnostic and Therapeutic Center, Foundation of Epileptology, 02-952 Warsaw, Poland

References

• Agostini S.D., Aniles E., Sirven J., Drazkowski J.F.:The importance of cardiac monitoring in the epilepsy monitoring unit: a case presentation of ictal asystole. Neurodiagn. J., 2012, 52: 250–260.[PubMed]
• Annegers J.F., Coan S.P. Hauser W.A. Leestma J.:Epilepsy, vagal nerve stimulation by the NCP system, all-cause mortality, and sudden, unexpected, unexplained death. Epilepsia, 2000, 41: 549–553.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Annegers J.F., Coan S.P.:SUDEP: overview of definitions and review of incidence data. Seizure, 1999, 8: 347–352.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Annegers J.F.:United States perspective on definitions and classifications. Epilepsia, 1997, 38 (Suppl. 11): 9–12.[Crossref]
• Antoniuk S.A., Oliva L.V., Bruck I., Malucelli M., Yabumoto S., Castellano J.L.:Sudden unexpected, unexplained death in epilepsy autopsied patients. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2001, 59: 40–45.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Augustine J.:Circuitry and functional aspect of insular lobe in primates including humans. Brain Res. Rev., 1996, 22: 229–244.[Crossref]
• Aurlien D., Larsen J.P., Gjerstad L., Taubøll E.:Increased risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy in females using lamotrigine: a nested, case-control study. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 258–266.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Aurlien D., Leren T.P., Taubøll E., Gjerstad L.:New SCN5A mutation in a SUDEP victim with idiopathic epilepsy. Seizure, 2009, 18: 158–160.[Crossref]
• Bateman L.M., Li C.S., Seyal M.:Ictal hypoxemia in localization-related epilepsy: analysis of incidence, severity and risk factors. Brain., 2008, 131: 3239–3245.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Bateman L.M., Li C.S., Lin T.C., Seyal M.:Serotonin reup-take inhibitors are associated with reduced severity of ictal hypoxemia in medically refractory partial epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2010a, 51: 2211–2214.[Crossref]
• Bateman L.M., Spitz M., Seyal M.:Ictal hypoventilation contributes to cardiac arrhythmia and SUDEP: report on two deaths in video-EEG-monitored patients. Epilepsia, 2010b, 51: 916–920.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Bell G.S., Sinha S., Tisi J., Stephani C., Scott C.A., Harkness W.F. et al.:Premature mortality in refractory partial epilepsy: does surgical treatment make a difference? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 2010, 81: 716–718.[Crossref]
• Benassi E., Bo G.-P., Cocito L., Maffini M., Loeb C.:Carbamazepine and cardiac conduction disturbances. Ann. Neurol., 1987, 22: 280–281.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Berg A.T., Shinnar S., Testa F.M., Levy S.R., Smith S.N., Beckerman B.:Mortality in childhood-onset epilepsy. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med., 2004, 158: 1147–1152.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Bergmann M., Granbichler C.A., Ndayisaba J.P., Oberaigner W., Kuchukhidze G., Trinka E.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy patients (SUDEP) in Tyrol. Epileptologia, 2012, 20: 45–50.
• Blumhart L.D., Smith P.E.M., Owen I.:Electrocardiographic accompaniments of temporal lobe epileptic seizures. Lancet, 1986 May 10: 1 (8489): 1051–1056
• Boesen F., Andersen E.B., Jensen E.K., Lagefoged S.D.:Cardiac conduction disturbance during carbamazepine therapy. Acta Neurol. Scand., 1983, 68: 49–52.[Crossref]
• Brodie M.J., Holmes G.L.:Should all patients be told about sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP)? Pros and Cons. Epilepsia, 2008, 49 (supl. 9): 99–101.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Brotherstone R., McLellan A.:Parasympathetic alteration during sub-clinical seizures. Seizure, 2012, 21: 391–398.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Burghaus L., Fink G.R., Erdmann E., Müller-Ehmsen J.:Epileptic seizures: effect on cardiac function (in German). Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 2011, 136: 315–319.[Crossref]
• Camfield P., Camfield C.:Sudden unexpected death in people with epilepsy: a pediatric perspective. Semin. Pediatr. Neurol., 2005, 12: 10–14.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Camfield C.S. Camfield P.R. Veugelers P.J.:Death in children with epilepsy: a population-based study. Lancet, 2002, 359: 1891–1895.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Coyle H.P., Baker-Brain N., Brown S.W.:Coroners’ autopsy reporting of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) in the UK. Seizure, 1994, 3: 247–252.[Crossref]
• Cysneiros R.M. Terra V.C., Machado H.R., Arida R.M., Albuquerque M., Scorza C.A. et al.:Epilepsy and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy?: eat more fish! A group hypothesis. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2009, 67: 927–929.[Crossref]
• Damasceno D.D., Ferreira A.J., Doretto M.C., Almeida AP.:Cardiovascular dysautonomia after seizures induced by maximal electroshock in Wistar rats. Seizure, 2012, 21: 711–716.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Day S.M., Wu Y.W., Strauss D.J., Shavelle R.M., Reynolds R.J.:Causes of death in remote symptomatic epilepsy. Neurology, 2005, 65: 216–222.[Crossref][PubMed]
• DeGiorgio Ch.M., Miller P., Meymandi S., Chin A., Epps J., Gordon S.:RMSSD, a measure of heart rate variability, is associated with risk factors for SUDEP: the SUDEP-7 inventory. Epilepsy Behav., 2010, 19: 78–81.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Delogu A.B., Spinelli A., Battaglia D., Dravet C., De Nisco A., Saracino A. et al.:Electrical and autonomic cardiac function in patients with Dravet syndrome. Epilepsia, 2011, 52: 55–58.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Donner E.J., Smith C.R., Snead O.C.3rd.:Sudden unexplained death in children with epilepsy. Neurology, 2001, 57: 430–434.[Crossref]
• Dupuis M., van Rijckevorsel K., Evrard F., Dubuisson N., Dupuis F., Van Robays P.:Takotsubo syndrome (TKS): a possible mechanism of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Seizure, 2012, 21: 51–54.[PubMed]
• Elliot W.J.:Cyclic and circadian variations in cardiovascular events. Am. J. Hypertens., 2001, 14: 291–295.[Crossref]
• Enkiri S.A., Ghavami F., Anyanwu C., Eldadah Z., Morrissey R.L., Motamedi G.K.:New onset left frontal lobe seizure presenting with ictal asystole. Seizure, 2011, 20: 817–819.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Ergul Y., Ekici B., Tatli B., Nisli K., Ozmen M.:QT and P wave dispersion and heart rate variability in patients with Dravet syndrome. Acta Neurol. Belg., 2012, Oct. 13 (Epub ahead of print). PMID: 23065439 (PubMed).
• Ernest M.D., Thomas G.E., Eden R.A. Hossach K.F.:The sudden unexpected death syndrome in epilepsy: demographic, clinical, and postmortem features. Epilepsia, 1992, 33: 310–316.[Crossref]
• Faingold C.L., Randall M., Mhaskar Y., Uteshev V.V.:Differences in serotonin receptor expression in the brainstem may explain the differential ability of a serotonin agonist to block seizure-induced sudden death in DBA/2 vs. DBA/1 mice. Brain Res., 2011, Oct. 18, 1418: 104–110. Epub 2011 Aug 23.[Crossref]
• Faught E., Duh M.S., Weiner J.R., Guérin A., Cunnington M.C.:Nonadherence to antiepileptic drugs and increased mortality: findings from the RANSOM Study. Neurology, 2008, 71: 1572–1578.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Ferrie C.D, Caraballo R., Covanis A., Demirbilek V., Der-vent A., Fejerman N. et al.:Autonomic status epilepticus in Panayiotopoulos syndrome and other childhood and adult epilepsies: a consensus view. Epilepsia, 2007, 48: 1165–1172.[Crossref]
• Fröscher W.:Drug resistant epilepsy. Epileptologia, 2012, 20: 17–23
• George G.R., Davis G.G.:Comparison of antiepileptic drug levels in different cases of sudden death. J. Forensic Sci., 1998, 43: 598–603.
• Glasscock E., Yoo J.W., Chen T.T., Klassen T.L., Noebels J.L.:Kv1.1 potassium channel deficiency reveals brain-driven cardiac dysfunction as a candidate mechanism for sudden unexplained death in epilepsy. J. Neurosci., 2010 30: 1567–1575.[Crossref]
• Gonzalez-Duarte A., Norcliffe-Kaufmann L., Martinez J., Rodriguez A.J., Kuzniecky R., Axelrod F. et al.:Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine features of Panayiotopoulos syndrome in three siblings. Epilepsy Behav., 2011, 21: 296–300.[Crossref]
• Harnold T., Yang C.C., Hsin Y.L., Wang P.J., Shieh K.R., Kuo T.:Heart rate variability in patients with frontal lobe epilepsy. Seizure, 2009, 18: 21–25.[Crossref]
• Harvey A.S., Nolan T., Carlin J.B.:Community-based study of mortality in children with epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1993, 34: 597–603.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Hesdorffer D.C., Tomson T.:Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy: Potential role of antiepileptic drugs. CNS Drugs, 2012, Oct. 30 (Epub. ahead of print). PMID: 23109241 (PubMed).
• Hesdorffer D.C., Tomson T., Benn E., Sander J.W., Nilsson L., Langan Y. et al.:The ILAE Commission on Epidemiology and Subcommission on Mortality 2011, Combined analysis of risk factors for SUDEP. Epilepsia, 2011, 52: 1150–1159.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Hesdorffer D.C., Tomson T., Benn E., Sander J.W., Nilsson L., Langan Y. et al.:Do antiepileptic drugs or generalized tonic-clonic seizure frequency increase SUDEP risk? A combined analysis. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 249–252.[Crossref]
• Hirsch L.J., Donner E.J., So E.L., Jacobs M., Nashef L., Noebels J.L. et al.:Abbreviated report of the NIH/NINDS workshop on sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Neurology, 2011, 31, 76: 1932–1938.[Crossref]
• Hirsch C.S., Martin D.L.:Unexpected death in young epileptics. Neurology, 1971, 21: 682–690.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Hotta H., Koizumi K., Stewart M.:Cardiac sympathetic nerve activity during kainic acid-induced limbic cortical seizures in rats. Epilepsia, 2009, 50: 923–927.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Hughes J.R.:A review of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: prediction of patients at risk. Epilepsy Behav., 2009, 14: 280–287.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Iannetti P., Parisi P., Spalice A., Ruggieri M., Zara F.:Addition of verapamil in the treatment of severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy. Epilepsy Res., 2009, 85: 89–95.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Irsel Tezer F., Saygi S.:The association of cardiac asystole with partial seizures: does it result from ictal or interictal activity? Epilepsy Res., 2011, 96: 180–184.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Jay G.W., Leestma J.E.:Sudden death in epilepsy. A comprehensive review of the literature and proposed mechanisms. Acta Neurol. Scand., Suppl. 1981, 82: 1–66.
• Jehi L.:Sudden death in epilepsy, surgery, and seizure outcomes: the interface between heart and brain. Cleve. Clin. J. Med., 2010, 77 (Suppl. 3): 51–55.[Crossref]
• Johnson J.N., Hofman N., Haglund C.M., Cascino G.D., Wilde A.A., Ackerman M.J.:Identification of a possible pathogenic link between congenital long QT syndrome and epilepsy. Neurology, 2009, 20; 72: 224–231.[Crossref]
• Johnson J.N., Tester D.J., Bass N.E., Ackerman M.J.:Cardiac channel molecular autopsy for sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. J. Child. Neurol., 2010, 25: 916–921.[Crossref]
• Kanazawa O., Tohyama J., Akasaka N., Kamimura T.:A magnetoencephalographic study of patients with Panayiotopoulos syndrome. Epilepsia., 2005, 46: 1106–1113.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Katz R.I., Tiger M., Harner R.N.:Epileptic cardiac arrhythmia: sinoatrial arrest in two patients. A potential cause of sudden death in epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1983, 24: 248.
• Kennebäck G., Bergfeldt L., Vallin H., Tomson T., Edhag O.:Electrophysiologic effect and clinical hazards of carbamazepine teatment for neurologic disorders in patient with abnormalities of the cardiac conduction system. Am. Heart J., 1991, 121: 1421–1429.[Crossref]
• Kinney H.C., Richerson G.B., Dymecki S.M., Darnall R.A., Nattie E.E.:The brainstem and serotonin in the sudden infant death syndrome. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2009, 4: 517–550.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Koutroumanidis M.:Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine features of Panayiotopoulos syndrome. Epilepsy Behav., 2011, 21: 217–218.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Kruja J,. Vyshka G.:Avoiding parental distress when discussing about SUDEP: the Albanian experience. Med. Arh. 2012, 66: 201–203.
• Lamberts R.J., Thijs R.D., Laffan A., Langan Y., Sander J.W.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: people with nocturnal seizures may be at highest risk. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 253–257.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Langan Y., Nashef L., Sander J.W.:Case-control study of SUDEP. Neurology, 2005,12, 64: 1131–1133.[Crossref]
• Lathers C.M.:Epilepsy and sudden death: personal reflections and call for global action. Epilepsy Behav., 2009, 15: 269–277.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Schraeder P.L.:Experience-based teaching of therapeutics and clinical pharmacology of antiepileptic drugs. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: do antiepileptic drugs have a role? Clin. Pharmacol., 1995, 573–586.[Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Schraeder P.L.:Clinical pharmacology: drugs as a benefit and/or risk in sudden unexpected death in epilepsy? J. Clin. Pharmacol., 2002, 42: 123–136.[Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Schraeder P.L.:Verbal autopsies and SUDEP. Epilepsy Behav., 2009, 14: 573–576.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Schraeder P.L.:Autonomic dysfunction in epilepsy: characterization of autonomic - cardiac neural discharge associated with pentyleneterazol-included epileptogenic activity. Epilepsia, 1982, 23: 633–697.[Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Koehler S.A., Wecht C.H., Schraeder P.L.:Forensic antiepileptic drug levels in autopsy cases of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav., 2011, 22: 778–785.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Schaeder P.L., Boggs J.G:Sudden unexpected death and autonomic dysfunction. In: J. Engel Jr. and T.A. Pedley (eds.), Epilepsy. A comprehensive Tex book. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, 1997: 1943–1955.
• Lathers C.M., Schraeder P.L., Bungo M.W.:The mystery of sudden death: mechanisms for risks. Epilepsy Behav., 2008, 12: 3–24.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Schraeder P.L., Weiner F.L.:Synchronization of cardiac autonomic neural discharge with epileptogenic activity: the lockstep phenomenon. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1987, 67: 247–259.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lathers C.M., Weiner F.L., Schraeder P.L.:Synchronization of cardiac autonomic neural discharge with epileptogenic activity: the lockstep phenomenon. Circ. Res., 1983, 31: 630.
• Leestma J.E.:Sudden unexpected death associated with seizures. In: C.M. Lathers, P.L. Schreader (eds)., Epilepsy and Sudden Death. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1990: 61–88.
• Leestma J.E., Kalelkar M.B., Teas S.S.:Sudden unexpected death assocoiated with seizures: analysis of 66 cases. Epilepsia, 1984, 25: 84–88.[Crossref]
• Leestma J.E., Hughes J.R., Teas S.S., Kalelkar M.B.:Sudden epilepsy deaths and the forensic pathologist. Am. J. Forensic. Med. Pathol., 1985, 6: 215–218.[Crossref]
• Leestma J.E., Walczak T., Hughes J.R., Kalelkar M.B., Teas S.S.:A prospective study on sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Ann. Neurol., 1989, 26: 195–203.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lehnertz K., Mormann F., Osterhage H., Müller A., Prusseit J., Chernihovskyi A. et al.:State-of-the-art of seizure prediction. J. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2007, 24: 147–153.[Crossref]
• Lhatoo S.D., Faulkner H.J., Dembny K., Trippick K., Johnson C., Bird J.M.:An electroclinical case-control study of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Ann. Neurol., 2010, 68: 787–796.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Lotufo P.A, Valiengo L., Benseñor I.M., Brunoni A.R.:A systematic review and meta-analysis of heart rate variability in epilepsy and antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 272–282.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Lutherer L.O., Williams H., Everse S.J.:Neurons form the restral fastigal nucleus are responsive to cardiovascular and respiratory challenges. J. Auton. Nerv. Syst., 1989, 27: 101–112.[Crossref]
• Majkowski J.:Meaning of communication between physician and patient with epilepsy for quality of life. Epileptologia, 2007, 15: 297–314.
• Majkowski J., Olczak M.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy − dynamic variabilities of EEG changes. Case report. Epileptologia, 2012, 20: 51–59.
• MacCormick J.M., McAlister H., Crawford J., French J.K., Crozier I., Shelling A.N. et al.:Misdiagnosis of long QT syndrome as epilepsy at first presentation. Ann. Emerg. Med., 2009, 54: 26–32.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Marynissen T., Govers N., Vydt T.:Ictal asystole: case report with review of literature. Acta Cardiol., 2012, 67: 461–464.[PubMed]
• Medical Services Study Group of the Royal College of Physicians of London:Death certification and epidemiological research. BMJ, 2009, 2: 1063–1065.
• Meyer S., Shamdeen M.G., Gottschling S., Strittmatter M., Gortner L.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy in children. J. Paediatr. Child. Health., 2011, 47: 326–331.[Crossref]
• Morton B., Richardson A., Duncan S.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP): don’t ask, don’t tell? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 2006, 77: 199–202.[Crossref]
• Moseley B., Bateman L., Millichap J.J., Wirrell E., Panayiotopoulos C.P.:Autonomic epileptic seizures, autonomic effects of seizures and SUDEP. Epilepsy Behav., 2012a, 22. [Crossref]
• Moseley B.D., Britton J.W., Nelson C., Lee R.W., So E.:Periictal cerebral tissue hypoxemia: A potential marker of SUDEP risk. Epilepsia, 2012b, Oct 12. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03707.x. [Epub ahead of print][Crossref]
• Mukherjee S., Tripathi M., Chandra P.S., Yadav R., Choudhary N., Sagar R. et al.:Cardiovascular autonomic functions in well-controlled and intractable partial epilepsies. Epilepsy Res., 2009, 85: 261–269.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Nadkarni M.A, Friedman D., Devinsky O.:Central apnea at complex partial seizure onset. Seizure, 2012, 21: 555–558.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Nashef L., So E.L., Ryvlin P., Tomson T.:Unifying the definitions of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 227–233.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Nashef L., Hindocha N., Makoff A.:Risk factors in sudden death in epilepsy (SUDEP): the quest for mechanisms. Epilepsia, 2007, 48: 859–871.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Nashef L.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: terminology and definitions. Epilepsia, 1997, 38 (Suppl. 11): 6–8.[Crossref]
• Natelson B.H.:Neurocardiology. An Interdiscyplinary area for the 80s. Arch. Neurol., 1985, 42: 178–183.
• Natelson B.H., Suarez R.V., Terrence C.F., Turizo R.:Patients with epilepsy who die suddenly have cardiac disease. Arch. Neurol., 1998, 55: 857–860.
• Nickels K.C., Grossardt B.R., Wirrell E.C.:Epilepsy-related mortality is low in children: A 30-year population-based study in Olmsted County, MN. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 2164–2171.[Crossref]
• Oppenheimer S.M., Cechetto D.F., Hachinski V.C.:Cerebrogenic cardiac arrhythmias. cerebral electrocardiographic influences and their role in sudden death. Arch. Neurol., 1990, 47: 513–519.
• Pack A.M.:SUDEP: What are the risk factors? Do seizures of antiepileptic drugs contribute to an increased risk? Epilepsy Currents, 2012, 12: 131–132[PubMed]
• Panayiotopoulos C.P.:Autonomic seizures and autonomic status epilepticus peculiar to childhood: diagnosis and management. Epilepsy Behav., 2004, 5: 286–295.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Poh M.Z., Loddenkemper T., Reinsberger C., Swenson N.C., Goyal S., Madsen J.R. et al.:Autonomic changes with seizures correlate with postictal EEG suppression. Neurology, 2012, 78: 1868–1876.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Pradhan C., Sinha S., Thennarasu K., Jagadisha T.:Quantitative analysis of heart rate variability in patients with absence epilepsy. Neurol. India, 2011, 59: 25–29.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Ramgopal S., Vendrame M., Shah A., Gregas M., Zarowski M., Rotenberg A. et al.:Circadian patterns of generalized tonic-clonic evolutions in pediatric epilepsy patients. Seizure, 2012, 21: 535–539.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Richerson G.B., Buchanan G.F.:The serotonin axis: Shared mechanisms in seizures, depression, and SUDEP. Epilepsia, 2011, 52 (Suppl. 1): 28–38.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Ridsdale L., Charlton J., Ashworth M., Richardson M.P., Gulliford M.C.:Epilepsy mortality and risk factors for death in epilepsy: a population-based study. Br. J. Gen. Pract., 2011, 61: 271–278.
• Ryvlin P., Cucherat M., Rheims S.:Risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy in patients given adjunctive antiepileptic treatment for refractory seizures: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomised trials. Lancet Neurol., 2011, 10: 961–968.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Ryvlin P., Tomson T., Montavont A.:Excess mortality and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Presse Med., 2009, 38: 905–910.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Saitoh N., Kanazawa O., Tohyama J., Akasaka N., Kamimura T.:Magnetoencephalographic findings of Panayiotopoulos syndrome with frontal epileptic discharges. Pediatr. Neurol., 2007, 36: 190–194.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Sakamoto K., Saito T., Orman R., Koizumi K., Lazar J., Salciccioli L. et al.:Autonomic consequences of kainic acid-induced limbic cortical seizures in rats: peripheral autonomic nerve activity, acute cardiovascular changes, and death. Epilepsia, 2008, 49: 982–996.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Sarkis R.A., Jehi L., Bingaman W., Najm I.M.:Seizure worsening and its predictors after epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 1731–1738.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Schimpf R., Borggrefe M., Wolpert C.:Clinical and molecular genetics of the short QT syndrome. Curr. Opin. Cardiol., 2008, 23: 192–198.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Scorza F.A., Terra V.C., Arida R.M., Sakamoto A.C., Harper R.M.:Sudden death in a child with epilepsy: potential cerebellar mechanisms? Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2011, 69: 707–710.[Crossref]
• Schraeder P.L., Lathers C.M.:Cardiac nerual discharge and epileptogenic activity in the cat: an animal model for unexplained death. Life Sci., 1983, 32: 1371–1382.[Crossref]
• Schraeder P.L., Delin K., McClelland R.L., So E.L.:A nationwide survey of the extent of autopsy in sudden unexplained death in epilepsy. Am. J. Forensic. Med. Pathol., 2009, 30: 123–126.[Crossref]
• Semmelroch M., Elwes R.D., Lozsadi D.A., Nashef L.:Retrospective audit of postictal generalized EEG suppression in telemetry. Epilepsia, 2012, Feb; 53(2): e21–24. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03296.x.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Seyal M., Bateman L.M.:Ictal apnea linked to contralateral spread of temporal lobe seizures: Intracranial EEG recordings in refractory temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2009, 50: 2557–2562.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Seyal M., Bateman L.M., Li C.S.:Impact of periictal interventions on respiratory dysfunction, postictal EEG suppression, and postictal immobility. Epilepsia, 2012, Sep. 27. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03691.[Crossref]
• Seyal M., Pascual F., Lee C.Y., Li C.S., Bateman L.M.:Seizure-related cardiac repolarization abnormalities are associated with ictal hypoxemia. Epilepsia, 2011, 52: 2105–2111.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Seymour N., Granbichler C.A., Polkey C.E., Nashef L.:Mortality after temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 2012, 53: 267–271.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Shields L.B., Hunsaker D.M., Hunsaker J.C. 3rd, Parker J.C. Jr.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: neuropathologic findings. Am. J. Forensic. Med. Pathol., 2002, 23: 307–314.
• Sillanpää M. and Shinnar S.:Long-term mortality in childhood-onset epilepsy. N. Engl. J. Med., 2010, 363: 2522–2529.[Crossref]
• So E.L.:What is known about the mechanisms underlying SUDEP? Epilepsia, 2008, 49 (Suppl. 9): 93–98.[PubMed][Crossref]
• So E.L., Bainbridge J., Buchhalter J.R., Donalty J., Donner E.J, Finucane A. et al.:Report of the American Epilepsy Society and the Epilepsy Foundation joint task force on sudden unexplained death in epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2009, 50: 917–922.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Specchio N., Trivisano M., Claps D., Battaglia D., Fusco L., Vigevano F.:Documentation of autonomic seizures and autonomic status epilepticus with ictal EEG in Panayiotopoulos syndrome. Epilepsy Behav., 2010, 19: 383–393.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Stauffer A.Z., Dodd-O J.M., Lathers C.M.:The relationship of the lockstep phenomenon and precipitous changes in mean arterial blood pressure. Electroencephal. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1989, 72: 340–345.[Crossref]
• Stöllberger C., Finsterer J.:Cardiorespiratory findings in sudden unexplained/unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Epilepsy Res., 2004, 59: 51–60.[PubMed]
• Strzelczyk A., Adjei P., Scott C.A., Bauer S., Rosenow F., Walker M.C. et al.:Postictal increase in T-wave alternans after generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Epilepsia, 2011, 52: 2112–2117.[Crossref]
• Surges R., Thijs R.D., Tan H.L., Sander J.W.:Sudden unexpected death in epielpsy: risk factor and potential pathomechanism. Nat. Rev. Neurol., 2009a, 5: 492–504.[Crossref]
• Surges R., Scott C.A. Walker H.C.:Peri-ictal atrioventicular conduction block in a patient with a lesion in the left insula. Case report and review literature. Epilepsy and Behav., 2009b, 16: 347: 349.
• Swinghamer J., Devinsky O., Friedman D.:Can post-ictal intervention prevent sudden unexpected death in epilepsy? A report of two cases. Epilepsy Behav., 2012, 24: 377–379.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Tao J.X, Qian S., Baldwin M., Chen X.J., Rose S., Eber-sole S.H. et al.:SUDEP, suspected positional airway obstruction, and hypoventilation in postictal coma. Epilepsia, 2010, 51: 2344–2347.[Crossref]
• Terra V.C., Sakamoto A.C., Machado H.R., Martins L.D., Cavalheiro E.A., Arida R.M. et al.:Do pets reduce the likelihood of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy? Seizure, 2012, 21: 649–651.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Terra V.C., Scorza F.A., Arida R.M., Fernandes R.M., Wichert-Ana L., Machado H.R. et al.:Mortality in children with severe epilepsy: 10 years of follow-up. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2011, 69: 766–769.[Crossref]
• Terra V.C., Scorza F.A. Sakamoto A.C., Pinto K.G., Fernandes R.M. Arida R.M. et al.:Does sudden unexpected death in children with epilepsy occur more frequently in those with high seizure frequency? Arq. Neuropsiquiatr., 2009, 67: 1001–1002.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Terrence C.F., Wisotzkey H.M., Perper J.A.:Unexpected, unexplained death in epileptic patients. Neurology, 1975, 25: 594–598.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Thorn M.:Neuropathologic findings in postmortem studies of sudden death in epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1997, 38: 32–34.[Crossref]
• Timmings P.L.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: is carbamazepine implicated? Seizure, 1998, 7: 289–291.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Tomson T., Hirsch L.J., Friedman D., Bester N., Hammer A., Irizarry M. et al.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy in lamotrigine randomized-controlled trials. Epilepsia, 2012, Oct 2. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03689.x.[Crossref]
• Tomson T., Walczak T., Sillanpää M., Sander J.W.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: a review of incidence and risk factors. Epilepsia, 2005, 46 (Suppl. 11): 54–61.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Toth V., Hejjel L., Fogarasi A., Gyimesi C., Orsi G., Szucs A. et al.:Periictal heart rate variability analysis suggests long-term postictal autonomic disturbance in epilepsy. Eur. J. Neurol., 2010, 17: 780–787.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Tu E., Bagnall R.D., Duflou J., Semsarian C.:Post-mortem review and genetic analysis of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) cases. Brain Pathol., 2011, 21: 201–208.[Crossref][PubMed]
• Velagapudi P., Turagam M., Laurence T., Kocheril A.:Cardiac arrhythmias and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol., 2012, 35: 363–370.[PubMed]
• Vickery B.G.:Mortality in a consecutive cohort of 248 adolescents who underwent diagnostic evaluation for epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 1997, 38: 67–69.[Crossref]
• Waddell B., McColl K., Turner C., Norman A., Coker A., White K. et al.:Are we discussing SUDEP? - A retrospective case note analysis. Seizure., 2012, Oct 22. pii: S1059-1311(12)00259-2. doi: 10.1016/j.seizure.2012.09.017. [Epub ahead of print][Crossref]
• Walczak T.S., Leppik I.E., D’Amelio M., Rarick J., So E., Ahman P. et al.:Incidence and risk factors in sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: a prospective cohort study. Neurology, 2001, 56: 519–525.[Crossref]
• Yildiz G.U., Dogan E.A., Dogan U., Tokgoz O.S., Ozdemir K., Genc B.O. et al.:Analysis of 24-hour heart rate variations in patients with epilepsy receiving antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Behav., 2011, 20: 349–354.[PubMed][Crossref]
• Zaatreh M.M., Quint S.R., Tennison M.B., D’Cruz O., Vaughn B.B.:Heart rate variability during interictal epileptiform discharges. Epilepsy Res., 2003, 54: 85–90.[Crossref]
• Zhuo L., Zhang Y., Zielke H.R., Levine B., Zhang X., Chang L. et al.:Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: Evaluation of forensic autopsy cases. Forensic Sci. Int., 2012, Sep. 18. pii: SO379-0738(12) 00387-8. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.08024[Crossref]

Identifiers

DOI

10.1515/joepi-2015-0004