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1
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The synthesis of tripolyphosphate using a one-stage method and a laboratory rotary kiln

100%
Kowalski Z., Makara A.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2014
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vol. 16
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issue 1
36-40
EN
In the study, sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) was obtained according to the one-stage method. Batch mixes with varied degrees of soda ash neutralization were produced using thermal or wet processing phosphoric acid and/ or recycled STPP calcined in a laboratory rotary kiln. Chromatographic analysis of the phosphate forms showed that products containing as much as 94.73% of a single component were produced. At STPP recycling rates of 2.5 and 5, products with a low bulk density ranging between 0.437-0.547 kg/dm3 were obtained. The recycling of STPP reduces the insoluble substance content, which affects the properties of the product. The phase composition of the products largely depends on the type of recycled phase of sodium tripolyphosphate (phase I and/or phase II) and the calcining temperature.
2
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A model of the meat waste management

100%
Kowalski Z., Krupa-Żuczek K.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2007
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vol. 9
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issue 4
91-97
EN
The European Union produces about 18 million tons of waste from meat industry per year. The real danger of the BSE disease caused a necessity of looking for a new alternative solution of meat waste management. The proposed solution of meat industry waste management would create meat production waste free with the use of the cleaner production method. Cleaner production includes: pollution prevention, reduction of the source, recovery of materials and energy (for example: the recovery of blood plasma and protein hydrolisate from bone sludge) and their recycling. The thermal processing of meat industrial waste (bone sludge, meat-bone meal and odour) is anticipated, too. Ashes from meat calcining have the phosphorus content close to its concentration, of the typical phosphoric raw materials. That confirmed the possibility of using such ashes as the substitute of phosphoric raw materials. The target model of waste free meat waste management included the results of the implemented and current research.
3
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Principles of municipal waste management in Poland and selected regions of Europe

100%
Kulczycka J., Kowalski Z.
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vol. 10
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issue 4
28-33
EN
High level of production and consumption in member-countries of the European Union is connected with generating a considerable amount of waste. In individual EU member-countries various methods aiming at decreasing the amount of generated waste are implemented. The current situation in Poland, and the best practical solutions introduced in some European regions have been presented in the paper. These solutions were put in place, mainly to fulfill the EU or country's regulations. The priority of municipal waste management measures is to prevent and minimize its generation. Decisions on preventing waste generation should be made as early as at the stage of product designing and manufacturing. The basic principle of proper municipal waste management is to create a system of regional solutions, which includes all the elements of waste management and relates them to the local conditions.
4
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Changes in the properties of pig manure slurry

81%
Kowalski Z., Makara A., Fijorek K.
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2013
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vol. 60
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issue 4
845-850
EN
The paper presents the results of analyses of samples of manure from a pig farm located near Piła, Poland performed between June 2011 and May 2012 using a single sampling system. The statistical analyses of the average content of chemical and biological oxide demands, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and dry mass in the slurry in various seasons allowed us to draw conclusions concerning the changes in the chemical composition of the manure in specific seasons and to determine the correlations between the chemical parameters. The average content of N, BOD, P, and dry mass content tended to decrease systematically from the spring until the winter. The highest correlation coefficient, which indicates significant interdependency among the variables tested, was consistently found for COD and BOD, whereas the smallest correlation coefficient was found consistently for K and Ca and once for Ca and N.
5
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A chemical method of the production of "heavy" sodium tripolyphosphate with the high content of Form I or Form II

81%
Banach M., Kowalski Z., Wzorek Z., Gorazda K.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2009
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vol. 11
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issue 2
13-20
EN
Sodium tripolyphosphate STPP is used in laundry detergent as a detergent "builder". The paper presents the chemical method of obtaining "heavy", i.e. with higher bulk density granulated sodium tripolyphosphate. The bulk density of sodium tripolyphosphate was increased by preparing a mixture of the dried sodium phosphates, the recycled subgrain of STPP and water in specific proportions and calcining this mixture for 1 hour at 400°C and 550°C (to obtain a proper STPP form) in the chamber kiln. This method allows producing the granular sodium tripolyphosphate with high bulk density (1.04-1.07 kg/dm3) and a high content of Form I or Form II, respectively.
6
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In vitrotests of dense hydroxyapatite materials

81%
Sobczak A., Kida A., Kowalski Z., Wzorek Z.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2009
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vol. 11
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issue 1
44-49
EN
The paper presents the results of the calcining process of deproteinised and defatted bone pulp called bone sludge. The calcining process was performed in two stages. The first step of the calcining process was realized at the temperature of 600°C in a rotary kiln. In the second stage the obtained bone ashes were calcined at five different temperatures from 650°C to 950°C for 2 hours in a chamber kiln and in air atmosphere. The products of the calcining process were characterized by the XRD method. Calcium content was determined by titration whereas the contents of total phosphorus and acid-soluble phosphorus - by the spectrophotometric method. The X-ray analysis confirmed that hydroxyapatite is the main component of the calcining products. Calcium and phosphorus contents were kept at the level of 40% and 17.5%, respectively, which corresponded to the Ca/P ratio of not stechiometric hydroxyapatite. In vitro studies, in the simulated body fluid, Ringer liquid and distilled water were realised. The measurements of pH value of SBF and Ringer fluid were realized. Additionally electrical conductivity as well as pH for distilled water where conducted. The goal of these tests was to evaluate chemical durability of dense hydroxyapatite materials.
7
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Evaluation of the biomedical properties of hydroxyapatite obtained from bone waste

81%
Sobczak A., Kida A., Kowalski Z., Wzorek Z.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2009
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vol. 11
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issue 1
37-43
EN
The method of obtaining hydroxyapatite by thermal treatment of deproteinised and defatted bone pulp called bone sludge was presented. The products of the calcining process were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The calcium content was determined with titration, whereas the contents of total phosphorus - with a spectrophotomertric method. X-ray investigations confirmed that hydroxyapatite was the main component of the calcining products in the calcining process. The FT-IR spectra confirmed that all organic substances were removed during the calcining process. On the basis of the research into physiological liquids the propensity to resorption of hydroxyapatite bioceramic was evaluated.
8
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Obtaining protein hydrolysates with chemical and enzymatic methods

81%
Kowalski Z., Makara A., Banach M.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2011
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vol. 13
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issue 1
41-46
EN
The goal of our research was to work up a method of hydrolisates protein production using as raw material fresh pork meat-bone tissue after dismantling the process of half carcasses. Actually this raw material was practically all utilized as waste. The results of laboratory research and an industrial test allowed to state that is possible to produce hydrolysates containing 8 - 10% of proteins, and the most advantageous parameters of the chemical process are: the reaction time ~105 min., temperature 120°C, pressure 3.0 bars. With the use of enzymes (Protamex and Flavourzyme), it is possible to obtain a non-gelling protein hydrolysate with a high degree of clarity and light cream colour. The best results were achieved with the following parameters: the meat-bone feedstock to the water ratio from 1:1 to 1:2, the temperature of 40 - 45°C, the time of the process 3 h, pH ~6.
9
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Treatment of wastewater from production of meat-bone meal

81%
Makara A., Kowalski Z., Saeid A.
Open Chemistry
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2015
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vol. 13
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issue 1
EN
The paper presents the results of the selection of the flocculent and coagulant types as well as the evaluation of the best parameters of treatment of wastewater deriving from meat-bone meal (MBM) production. The efficiency of purification depends on the composition of the coagulant and flocculent as well as the magnitude of the applied dose. The use of ferrous sulfate PIX 113 coagulant assured the highest reduction of the contamination content in filtrate, resulting in the reduction of color of wastewater by 96.8%, turbidity by 99.2%, and the phosphorus content by 99.9% and nitrogen by 92.4%, with the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) being reduced by 62.8%. The X-ray method proved the significant presence of phosphorus salts in the content of sediment. The moisture content in the sediment varied from 45 to 78.5%. The elaborated method of pretreatment of wastewater from meat-bone meal unit was verified on an industrial scale. A very high reduction of the phosphorus content in filtrate (> 99.9%), and a significant reduction of COD as well as nitrogen and suspended solid contents (90−95%) were presented. A high reduction of contamination in filtrate increases the production capacity of the existing biological treatment plant, in the next step of treatment of filtrate in the biological treatment unit.
10
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Thermal utilization of mixtures of bone waste

81%
Staroń P., Kowalski Z., Krupa-Żuczek K., Wzorek Z.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2010
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vol. 12
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issue 4
26-30
EN
The results of a research related to the physico - chemical properties of the mixture of bone - waste and their ingredients have been presented. The mixtures was made up from waste: bovine bones, pork bones, bone sludge and bone meal. The content of the individual waste in the mixtures was selected on the basis of the heat of the combustion of the mixture and the amount of the waste produced in a meat processing plant. The heat of the combustion has been determined by the calorimeter, the content of phosphorus by spectrophotometric method, calcium by titration and phase composition by X - ray diffraction.The investigations confirmed that pork bones have the highest heat of the combustion 17 MJ/kg because of a big amount of fats. The analyzed waste has contained on average 16.5 wt % phosphorus and above 30 wt % calcium. X - ray diffraction method has proved that in bone waste one phase - hydroxyapatite occurs.
11
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PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PIG SLURRY

81%
Marszałek M., Kowalski Z., Makara A.
Czasopismo Techniczne
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-
PL
Pig slurry is classified as a natural fertilizer of animal origin, being a mixture of faeces, urine, remains of fodder and water used for the elimination of faeces. It is generated in non-bedding pig farming conditions, where animals are kept on slatted floors (grate or slotted floor). This paper presents the general characteristics of pig slurry, its physicochemical properties and its microbiological composition. Also, factors affecting slurry properties are discussed.
12
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From sewage sludge ash to calcium phosphate fertilizers

81%
Gorazda K., Kowalski Z., Wzorek Z.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2012
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vol. 14
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issue 3
54-58
EN
Our work presents the results of the research on the utilization of ashes after sewage sludge combustion comprising phosphorus recovery in the form of useful products. The investigations were divided into three parts: selecting the combustion parameters of sewage sludge, examining ash leaching with mineral acids (nitric and phosphoric) to high phosphorus selectivity assuring a low content of iron and heavy metals in the extracted solutions and precipitation of CaHPO4 .2H2O. Suitable temperature of a sewage sludge combustion enables selective extraction of phosphorus compounds from ash because of hematite phase forming, insoluble in mineral acids. The extracts from phosphoric acid leaching, where the extraction of phosphorus compounds was 96.1%, have very good properties for its further use as the initial solution for CaHPO4 .2H2O with 6% lime milk. The obtained product is characterized by high purity and phosphorus availability compatible even with the feed phosphate standard.
13
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Separation of pig slurry using sedimentation and pressurized filtration

81%
Marszałek M., Kowalski Z., Makara A.
|
PL
Intensive non-bedding pig farming results in the formation of large quantities of liquid waste in the form of slurry. In areas with high concentration of pig farms where we have to deal with insufficient acreage of arable land there is often a difficulty with management of pig slurry’s surplus. The solution to this problem may become a separation of slurry into solid fraction, rich in phosphorus and liquid fraction, which contains mainly nitrogen and potassium. The paper presents the fractionation of pig slurry using sedimentation and pressurized filtration.
14
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Content available

Technologies of biogas production from different sources – a review

81%
Kwaśny J., Banach M., Kowalski Z.
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PL
Biogas is produced in the anaerobic digestion of biomass. It is a mixture of methane (mainly), carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide and water in vapor form. The concentrations of these gases vary depending on the type of fermentation process substrates, which affect the chemical composition of biogas. The paper presents the characteristics of the biomass subjected to anaerobic processing. Also selected technologies of biogas production from different origin – sewage treatment plants, landfill and agricultural are discussed.
15
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Manufacturing of phosphoric acid from hydroxyapatite, contained in the ashes of the incinerated meat-bone wastes

81%
Krupa-Żuczek K., Kowalski Z., Wzorek Z.
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vol. 10
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issue 3
13-20
EN
The results of the investigations concerning phosphoric acid manufacturing, by the extraction method, from the ashes containing hydroxyapatite, obtained through the thermal treatment of bone sludge have been presented. The incinerated bone sludge with ~ 16% P content and the minimal amount of impurities can be an alternative source for phosphoric acid production. The process consists in two stages. In the 1st stage, reaction of hydroxyapatite with phosphoric acid resulting in monocalcium phosphate formation in the solution obtained is carried out. The tests revealed that overall hydroxyapatite dissolution in phosphoric acid takes place when the concentration is 37% H3PO4. In the 2nd stage monocalcium phosphate is converted into calcium sulphate using concentrated sulphuric acid at the recommended temperature of 95°C. The principles of the technological idea of the process of phosphoric acid manufacturing from HA-containing ashes, obtained by bone wastes incineration, as well as a preliminary economic analysis for the production of 10 000 t/year of food-grade phosphoric acid have been developed.
16
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Analysis of sodium tripolyphosphate production processes with a cumulative calculation method

71%
Kowalski Z., Kijkowska R., Gorazda K., Wzorek Z., Nowak A.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2010
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vol. 12
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issue 4
22-25
EN
Sodium tripolyphosphate - one of the condensed phosphates is an important ingredient in various types of cleaning substances and a food additive. The paper presents a comparison of different variants of STPP production with the application of the cumulative calculation method. The material balances of the processes were taken as the basis of the analysis. The method of the process analysis as shown in the cumulative calculation determines the influence of the emissions of dust and gas pollutions originating from a particular production process, as well as wastewater and solid wastes resulting from it, upon the natural environment. It was proved that the solution of the production STPP with the dry one-step method has the lowest impact on the environment among the three assessed solutions.
17
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The Impact of Dry Mass Content in Pig Liquid Manure on its Treatment with a Filtration Method

71%
Kowalski Z., Makara A., Marszałek M., Hoffmann J., Hoffmann K.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2014
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vol. 16
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issue 3
106-110
EN
The present study examines the impacts of dry mass content in pig liquid manure on its treatment with a filtration method. Samples of liquid manure with variable dry mass content were subjected to treatment using phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, lime milk and superphosphate, as well as to thermal treatment, while in the last phase of pressure filtration. Increased dilution of the manure resulted in a reduced raw materials consumption ratio and improved filtration process efficiency, which ranged from 408 to 3765 kg/m2/h. The highest filtration efficiency was achieved using manure containing 3% dry mass, while the lowest efficiency was observed in manure at 10% dry mass. The increase in liquid manure dilution also reduced chemical oxygen demand in the filtrate, which ranged from 15 062 to 3656 mg/l. An appropriate manure dilution level, under the constant parameters of the treatment process, reduced phosphorus content in the filtrate to < 10 mg/kg while simultaneously enriching the post-filtration sediment with this precious fertilizing component.
18
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Pig manure treatment by filtration

71%
Kowalski Z., Makara A., Matýsek D., Hoffmann J., Hoffmann K.
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2013
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vol. 60
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issue 4
839-844
EN
A study of new pig manure treatment and filtration process was carried out. The advantage of the worked out technology is the method of incorporation of crystalline phase into solid organic part of manure. The obtained new solid phase of manure contains about 50% of crystalline phase forming a filtration aid that enables high effectiveness of manure filtration. The filtration rate of manure separation into solid and liquid fractions with pressure filter may achieve 1300-3000 kg/m2/h. The method makes it possible to maintain an overall average pollutant removal performance 90% for the chemical oxygen demand COD, > 99% for the suspended solids SS, to 47% for the total nitrogen content. The obtained results showed that the proposed technology being efficient and simple offers a possible solution to pig manure problems.
19
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Dry single-stage method of sodium tripolyphosphate production – technological and economic assessment

62%
Gorazda K., Kowalski Z., Kijkowska R., Pawłowska-Kozińska D., Wzorek Z., Banach M., Nowak A. K.
Polish Journal of Chemical Technology
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2014
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vol. 16
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issue 1
41-44
EN
The study presents a technology of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) production with the use of a dry, single-stage method. The reacting substrates (concentrated wet-process phosphoric acid - WPPA and solid Na2CO3 ) are mixed with a recycled final product (STPP) in a mixer, then a „quasi-dry” mixture is calcined in a rotary kiln. Thanks to that, some stages of a classic method of STPP production are eliminated: one of the two-stage neutralization of the phosphoric acid with sodium carbonate at temperature ~80°C, filtration of the neutralised solution and its evaporation, as well as the stage of drying a solution of mono- and di-sodium orthophosphate in a spray dryer. According to the presented technical and economical analysis, the costs of STPP production using a single-stage dry method can be 10% lower compared to the classic method.
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